Distance Learning in Higher Education

The Western Governors University (WGU) and the California Virtual University (CVU) are revealing examples of the complex issues involved in implementing distance learning on the public policy level. Although technology is certainly important, it has masked the fact that the WGU and CVU initiatives mark the rise of learner-centered higher education and the increased role of business in the academy. In comparing and contrasting WGU and CVU, it is clear that the WGU is a more radical proposition because of competency-based credit and the connection with private industry. Two important issues driving public policy are raised in these two efforts: First, are the California and Western Governors Association initiatives the product of the commercialization of education or the result of a reform of higher education that may lead to an increased learner-centered orientation? Second, what is the appropriate role of private industry in higher education?


Distance Learning in Higher Education
In evaluating and understanding administrative practices in higher education in connection with distance learning, it is useful to look at the various attempts recently to construct a best practices model.In response to these concerns about the administration of distance learning programs in higher education, a number of organizations have adopted guidelines.American P robably the most important aspect of WICHE's standards in relationship to implementation is the call for new distance learning programs to be "consistent with the institution's role and mission" (WICHE, 1997, p. 7).While this is a standard question asked by accrediting agencies in looking at new program development, it has special meaning in regard to distance learning.Since distance learning has been identified with revenue generation and raises questions about teaching methods, traditional university roles and missions often are a problematic fit.While WICHE's standards are useful as a beginning step for many institutions, a more detailed understanding of how they are applied in specific settings is necessary.To this end, WICHE includes short case studies and examples of how various institutions are practicing distance learning in an affective manner.
The most important standards under development for distance learning practice are those of the regional accrediting agencies.
Regional accrediting agencies are recognized by the U.S. Department of Education as entities whose accreditation enables its member institutions to seek eligibility to participate in Title IV programs.Pressure from various sources seems to be pushing the accrediting agencies to focus on the issue of quality in distance education through revising standards.The purpose of this new effort is to assure that quality standards are upheld during a period of rapid growth in the use of technology in higher education.In September, 2000, the eight regional accrediting commissions issued a draft "Statement of the Regional Accrediting Commissions on the Evaluation of Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs."In this document, the Council of Regional Accrediting Commissions (C-RAC) explains that it contracted with the Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications (WCET) to create "Guidelines for the Evaluation of Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs."The regional accrediting commissions recognize the problem of the whole notion of regional accreditation when educational programs are no longer tied to location in distance learning programs.Thus, they felt a need to outline joint standards.The guidelines are not a departure from regional standards, but rather an attempt to apply traditional standards of institutional quality to new forms of learning.Most importantly, the guidelines specifically require that all "big decisions" are to be made by faculty.

BEST PRACTICES RECOMMENDATIONS
While it is undoubtedly somewhat dangerous given the newness and controversial nature of distance learning, I want to sketch out some

Understand Why Distance Learning is Used at Specific Institutions
The first lesson is that it is important for institutions to be clear on why they are using distance learning.It has been repeatedly seen recently that institutions develop distance learning in a haphazard fashion without incorporating it into overall institutional planning.While certainly it is important to test whether the aims of distance learning use fits well with the institutional mission, a more specific understanding of how classroom use of technology fits in with strategic planning is crucial.

Enter into Agreements with For-Profit Entities with Great Caution
Some institutions begun their use of distance learning by forming partnerships with for-profit entities, but eventually grow out of such agreements.While certainly this is characteristic of a type of organizational learning that needed to take place at institutions, it is important that institutions understand the specific competencies acquired through such relationships, and use these outside relationships for very specific and limited uses.

If New Revenue Generation is a Clear Institutional Motivation, Understand the Economics
While I see that many institutions claim that they have developed revenue-generating programs, it is clear to practitioners that distance learning in American higher education is not the cash cow often advertised.Institutions with clear and explicit institutional motivations to generate revenue need to understand this, and appreciate the specific economics that make this so.A key reason for the under-performing of many distance learning programs is because they are modeled too closely on traditional classroom courses.Using regular faculty to teach their usual courses in a similar fashion can only lead to a more, not less, expensive program.

If New Revenue Generation is a Clear Institutional Motivation, Watch the Quality
Although there may be no significant difference between distance learning and traditional education in academic oversight practices, there is reason to suspect that institutional revenue motivations might lead to sacrifices in pedagogical quality in individual cases.While certainly a simple profit motive does not automatically lead to a sacrifice in quality, it might.Administrators venturing down the road are advised to put safeguards in place that ensure quality and ethical behavior.

Try for More Than Automation of the Traditional Classroom
The single greatest problem with distance learning in higher education in America today is that it is usually too tied to traditional models of higher education both administratively and pedagogically.On the administrative end, most programs have developed using usual university administrative structures including formats, academic oversight, faculty agreements, assessment, outcomes and requirements for students.On the pedagogical level the situation is even worse.In surveying higher education today, the lack of inventiveness or desire to explore new ways of learning exhibited by many of the institutions using distance learning is striking.What could be less pedagogically innovative than simply audiotaping or videotaping classroom lectures?Even in the computer environment, simply digitizing lectures and automating passive learning experiences is hardly a pedagogical revolution.Administrators and faculty need to take the opportunity that new technology offers to re-think how we organize higher education administratively, and how best to serve the growing and diverse population of learners.

Faculty Compensation and Intellectual Property -Short Agreements, Understand the Economics
Faculty compensation issues are probably the most controversial aspect of the whole topic of distance learning, so I venture an opinion with more than a little reluctance.There are two main problems with this discussion.The first problem is the desire to keep compensation in line with current structures, while at the same time taking advantage of the savings that can come from some distance learning models.Second, both administrators and faculty tend to exaggerate the potential value of both their distance learning courses and intellectual property, respectively.Consequently, a recommended good practice at this point needs to address these clear problems.
Given the exaggerated expectations regarding long-term revenue from faculty intellectual property, short-term agreements make sense.Although in practice, particularly in the early development stages, they are the same, one needs to separate the course developers from the instructor or specific classes.If the goal is to reduce the expense of instruction, then distance learning must be used to reduce faculty expenses through the development of materials that are substituted for variable faculty costs.Less faculty time per course, and/or lower paid tutors need to be used instead of regular faculty for this to work economically.Administrators need to be clear here on what their motivation is for utilizing distance learning.If they expect to generate more revenue, they need to key in on the economics of how faculty are used.If offering what is likely to be more expensive courses through distance learning methods makes sense for that institution, then using regular faculty in traditional ways is a clear path.
What I have described above regarding the faculty represents the practical administrative aspects, but does not deal with the larger philo-

Distance Learning in Higher Education
Continued from Page 6 sophical issues.My own perspective is that one needs to be very conscious of the different types of higher education institutions, missions, and populations served.For a selective traditional undergraduate program, I would be very hesitant to attempt changing the roles of faculty in order to increase revenue through the use of distance learning.However, in continuing education or adult degree programs, I think that it makes sense to consider changes in faculty roles to make education more affordable.➪ groups grow along with an increase in the complexity of group transactions and decision-making.

REFERENCES
Finally, if we view communication as transactional, then it follows that both the sender(s) and receiver(s) are responsible for the effectiveness of any particular communication."The sender is responsible for being as clear as possible and the receiver is responsible for attending to the sender, trying to understand the sender as he or she wants to be understood, and asking questions to help the sender clarify the message" (Barnland 1962).When communicating online this should be remembered because of the heightened ambiguity of meaning caused by the deficiency in nonverbal communication that accounts for over 50% of meanings in messages that include emotional content.

THE FUTURE OF IMMEDIACY & INSTRUCTIONAL RESEARCH
Historically, immediacy research has been conducted by exploring the communication phenomena that occur in the traditional face-toface classroom.The creation of more online learning communities provides scholars with exciting opportunities to test and explore the implications of interacting online including communication and leadership.Studies on leadership by Johannesen (1990) and Hackman and Johnson (1996) both concluded, "extraordinary leadership is the product of extraordinary communication" (Hackman and Johnsen).Considering that leadership is a function of communicating proficiently and that everyone is responsible for communication effectiveness, then leadership is not the responsibility of one individual, but everyone.J. McCann and Margerison (1996) add to this fact that, "today's business environment is so complex and in such a continual state of change that success often depends on the outputs of teams or work groups rather than the efforts of a single person." Johannesen reported that the communication of the most effective leaders is dialogical.This means they relate to others in a special way, "interpersonally," wherein they dialogue by "talking with" people, instead of "talking at" people in a monologue.To clarify, monologue occurs when an individual sender's communication is self-centered and focuses on him or herself as the provider but not the recipient of ideas.Monologue is closed-minded, one-way and does not acknowledge the reciprocal influence of communication between people.Conversely, dialogue is reciprocal and is characterized by communication that is cooperative, flexible, and We-oriented.Hallmark to dialogue is mutual caring and respect between and among individuals.The communication behavior of people in dialogue is supportive, authentic, and encouraging.When we dialogue we take responsibility for our communicative behavior as well as the responsibility for clearly expressing our ides and feelings.Dialoguing should also claim responsibility for influence for the influence on others.However this does not mean that everyone is agreeable and that dialogue is void of conflict.Tannen (1998) explains: "In dialogue, there is opposition, yes, but no head-on collision.Smashing of heads does not open minds…Even cooperation, after all is not the absence of conflict but a means of managing conflict." In addition to exploring strategies to enhance perceptions of closeness at a distance, other issues are raised.How much is "too much" in terms of creating an immediate environment?What issues associated with classroom management need to be considered in establishing close relationships in an online class?The transformation of learning environments creates innovative and challenging issues for exploration.➪ Council on Education (ACE) guidelines are entitled "Guiding Principles for Distance Learning in a Learning Society."The Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges Western Association of Schools and Colleges (1999) issued a Distance Education Handbook focusing on the issues of motivation, partnerships, mission, faculty, students, special need students, library access, student outcomes, planning, facilities, marketing, and intellectual property rights.The Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education's "Good Practices in Distance Education" (WICHE, 1997) has been one of the most influential attempts to date at providing guidelines for distance learning and provides a good framework for examining distance learning implementation.This document is a product of a three-year project supported by the Fund for the Improvement of Post-Secondary Education (FIPSE) called "Balancing Quality and Access: Reducing State Policy Barriers to Electronically Delivered Higher Education Programs."The principles have been endorsed by a number of higher education associations and accrediting agencies.The preamble to the principles claims that in recognizing the changing context for learning, the authors tried not to tie them to traditional campus structures.Nevertheless, the guidelines seem to be very traditional in focusing on accreditation bodies, curriculum, faculty oversight, resources, student services, and assessment.It is particularly telling that rather than addressing pedagogical questions, the principles call for "appropriate" faculty and student interaction.

edu Distance Learning Best Practices Debate best
BY GARY A. BERG practices strategies for institutions venturing into the use of distance learning.
GARY A. BERG, PHD IS DIRECTOR OF EXTENDED EDUCATION AT CHAPMAN UNIVERSITY E-MAIL: gberg@chapman.